Functional consequences of allotypic polymorphisms in human immunoglobulin G subclasses.

Heritable polymorphisms within the human IgG locus, collectively termed allotypes, have often been linked by statistical associations, but rarely mechanistically, to a wide range of disease states. One potential explanation for these associations is that IgG allotype alters host cell receptors' affinity for IgG, dampening or enhancing an immune response depending on the nature of the change and the receptors. In this work, a panel of allotypic antibody variants were evaluated using multiplexed, label-free biophysical methods and cell-based functional assays to determine what effect, if any, human IgG polymorphisms have on antibody function. While we observed several differences in FcγR affinity among allotypes, there was little evidence of dramatically altered FcγR-based effector function or antigen recognition activity associated with this aspect of genetic variability.

Identification of a new European rabbit IgA with a serine-rich hinge region.

In mammals, the most striking IgA system belongs to Lagomorpha. Indeed, 14 IgA subclasses have been identified in European rabbits, 11 of which are expressed. In contrast, most other mammals have only one IgA, or in the case of hominoids, two IgA subclasses. Characteristic features of the mammalian IgA subclasses are the length and amino acid sequence of their hinge regions, which are often rich in Pro, Ser and Thr residues and may also carry Cys residues. Here, we describe a new IgA that was expressed in New Zealand White domestic rabbits of IGHVa1 allotype. This IgA has an extended hinge region containing an intriguing stretch of nine consecutive Ser residues and no Pro or Thr residues, a motif exclusive to this new rabbit IgA. Considering the amino acid properties, this hinge motif may present some advantage over the common IgA hinge by affording novel functional capabilities. We also sequenced for the first time the IgA14 CH2 and CH3 domains and showed that IgA14 and IgA3 are expressed.

IgG1 Allotypes Influence the Pharmacokinetics of Therapeutic Monoclonal Antibodies through FcRn Binding.

Because IgG1 allotypes might have different half-lives, their influence on infliximab (G1m17,1 allotype) pharmacokinetics was investigated in a group of spondyloarthritis patients. Infliximab was found to have a shorter half-life in patients homozygous for the G1m17,1 allotypes than in those carrying the G1m3 with no G1m1 (G1m3,-1) allotype. Because the neonatal FcR (FcRn) is involved in the pharmacokinetics of mAbs, the interaction of different IgG1 allotypes with FcRn was examined using cellular assays and surface plasmon resonance. G1m17,1 mAbs, such as infliximab and rituximab, were shown to bind more efficiently to FcRn and to be transcytosed better than the G1m3,-1 mAb cetuximab, which explains why infliximab is a better competitor for endogenous IgG1 in G1m3,-1 allotype-bearing patients. A set of four allotype variants of adalimumab (G1m17,1; G1m17,-1; G1m3,1; and G1m3,-1) was also tested for its binding to FcRn, revealing that the G1m3,1 variant, not present in commercial mAbs, binds more efficiently to FcRn and is transcytosed better than the other three variants, all of which are found in therapeutic mAbs.

Equine immunoglobulins and organization of immunoglobulin genes.

Our understanding of how equine immunoglobulin genes are organized has increased significantly in recent years. For equine heavy chains, 52 IGHV, 40 IGHD, 8 IGHJ and 11 IGHC are present. Seven of these IGHCs are gamma chain genes. Sequence diversity is increasing between fetal, neonatal, foal and adult age. The kappa light chain contains 60 IGKV, 5 IGKJ and 1 IGKC, whereas there are 144 IGLV, 7 IGLJ, and 7 IGLC for the lambda light chain, which is expressed predominantly in horses. Significant transcriptional differences for IGLV and IGLC are identified in different breeds. Allotypic and allelic variants are observed for IGLC1, IGLC5, and IGLC6/7, and two IGLV pseudogenes are also transcribed. During age development, a decrease in IGLVs is noted, although nucleotide diversity and significant differences in gene usage increased. The following paper suggests a standardization of the existing nomenclature of immunoglobulin genes.

Inter-individual differences in HLA expression can impact the CDC crossmatch.

How human leucocyte antigen (HLA) expression levels on human lymphocytes relate to clinically relevant in vitro cytotoxicity testing has not been defined. Here, cross-sectional (n = 14) and longitudinal (n = 6) semi-quantitative assessment of HLA expression on lymphocytes was performed. Complement-dependent cytotoxicity (CDC) and cellular allo-reactivity were assessed vis-à-vis target cells with defined levels of HLA expression. On CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cells, and on B-cells, intra-individual HLA levels varied ≤1.5-fold, whereas inter-individual HLA expression varied 2.34-fold and 2.07-fold on CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cells, respectively, and 2.90-fold on B-cells. Importantly, CDC crossmatch reactions induced by anti-HLA-A2 monoclonal antibody as well as patient sera solely containing HLA-A2 antibodies were significantly impacted by HLA-A2 expression levels on donor cells. Likewise, cytotoxicity of HLA-A2 reactive effector cells was induced proportionate to availability of HLA-A2. These data demonstrate that human HLA expression on lymphocytes from healthy blood donors is fairly stable intra-individually, yet varies significantly from person to person. Variability in HLA expression levels can impact functional cytotoxic reactions in vitro, including the widely used CDC crossmatch assay. Prospective studies are required to test the clinical relevance of this finding.

Immunoglobulin genes influence the magnitude of humoral immunity to cytomegalovirus glycoprotein B.

Human cytomegalovirus (HCMV) is a risk factor for many human diseases, but among exposed individuals, not everyone is equally likely to develop HCMV-spurred diseases, implying the presence of host genetic factors that might modulate immunity to this virus. Here, we show that antibody responsiveness to HCMV glycoprotein B (gB) is significantly associated with particular immunoglobulin GM (γ marker) genotypes. Anti-HCMV gB antibody levels were highest in GM 17/17 homozygotes, intermediate in GM 3/17 heterozygotes, and lowest in GM 3/3 homozygotes (28.2, 19.0, and 8.1 µg/mL, respectively; P=.014). These findings provide mechanistic insights in the etiopathogenesis of HCMV-spurred diseases.

Accuracy and coverage assessment of Oryctolagus cuniculus (rabbit) genes encoding immunoglobulins in the whole genome sequence assembly (OryCun2.0) and localization of the IGH locus to chromosome 20.

We report on the analyses of genes encoding immunoglobulin heavy and light chains in the rabbit 6.51× whole genome assembly. This OryCun2.0 assembly confirms previous mapping of the duplicated IGK1 and IGK2 loci to chromosome 2 and the IGL lambda light chain locus to chromosome 21. The most frequently rearranged and expressed IGHV1 that is closest to IG DH and IGHJ genes encodes rabbit VHa allotypes. The partially inbred Thorbecke strain rabbit used for whole-genome sequencing was homozygous at the IGK but heterozygous with the IGHV1a1 allele in one of 79 IGHV-containing unplaced scaffolds and IGHV1a2, IGHM, IGHG, and IGHE sequences in another. Some IGKV, IGLV, and IGHA genes are also in other unplaced scaffolds. By fluorescence in situ hybridization, we assigned the previously unmapped IGH locus to the q-telomeric region of rabbit chromosome 20. An approximately 3-Mb segment of human chromosome 14 including IGH genes predicted to map to this telomeric region based on synteny analysis could not be located on assembled chromosome 20. Unplaced scaffold chrUn0053 contains some of the genes that comparative mapping predicts to be missing. We identified discrepancies between previous targeted studies and the OryCun2.0 assembly and some new BAC clones with IGH sequences that can guide other studies to further sequence and improve the OryCun2.0 assembly. Complete knowledge of gene sequences encoding variable regions of rabbit heavy, kappa, and lambda chains will lead to better understanding of how and why rabbits produce antibodies of high specificity and affinity through gene conversion and somatic hypermutation.

Regulatory B-cell compartment in transfused alloimmunized and non-alloimmunized patients with sickle cell disease.

Transfusion therapy is a life-sustaining treatment for patients with sickle cell disease (SCD), but can cause serious complications including alloimmunization. We previously reported diminished regulatory T cells (Tregs) and skewed Th2 responses in alloimmunized SCD patients. We hypothesized that the B cell regulatory (Breg) compartment, which controls Treg and Th differentiation, may also be compromised in allosensitized SCD patients. Phenotypically, we did not find differences in the frequency or numbers of CD24(hi) CD38(hi) and CD24(hi) CD27(+) B cell subsets, both previously identified as human Bregs, between alloimmunized and non-alloimmunized SCD patients on regular transfusions. However, at the functional level, CD19+ B cells from alloimmunized SCD patients expressed lower levels of IL-10 following stimulation as compared with non-alloimmunized patients (P < 0.05), and had reduced ability in inhibiting autologous CD14+ monocyte TNF-α expression (P < 0.05). These findings suggest that Bregs from alloimmunized and non-alloimmunized SCD patients differ in their ability to produce IL-10 and dampen monocyte activation, all consistent with an altered immunoregulatory state in alloimmunized SCD patients.

Intrinsic unresponsiveness of Mertk-/- B cells to chronic graft-versus-host disease is associated with unmodulated CD1d expression.

Activation and migration of marginal zone B (MZB) cells into follicular (FO) regions of the spleen has been proposed as one of the mechanisms that regulate the development of autoreactive B cells. The mer receptor tyrosine kinase (Mertk) mediates apoptotic cell clearance and regulates activation and cytokine secretion. In the well-studied class II chronic GVH model of bm12 cells into B6 hosts, we observed that Mertk deficient B6 mice did not generate autoantibodies in response to this allogeneic stimulus. We posited that Mertk is important in MHC-II-mediated B cell signaling. In the present study, we show that B cells from Mertk(-/-) mice but not WT B6 mice exhibited decreased calcium mobilization and tyrosine phosphorylation when stimulated by MHC-II cross-linking. The finding that Mertk was important for class II signaling in B cells was further supported by the preponderance of a-allotype autoantibodies in cGVH in RAG-KO mice reconstituted with a mixture of bone marrow from Mertk(-/-) mice (b-allotype) and C20 mice (a-allotype). MZB cells from Mertk(-/-) mice were unable to down regulate surface CD1d expression and subsequent inclusion in the MZ, associated with significantly lower germinal center responses compared to MZB cells from WT. Moreover, Mertk(-/-) mice treated with an anti-CD1d down regulating antibody responded significantly to bm12 cells, while no response was observed in Mertk(-/-) mice treated with control antibodies. Taken together, these findings extend the role of Mertk to include CD1d down regulation on MZB cells, a potential mechanism limiting B cell activation in cGVH.

Characterization of a mutated IgA2 antibody of the m(1) allotype against the epidermal growth factor receptor for the recruitment of monocytes and macrophages.

IgA antibodies constitute an important part of the mucosal immune system, but their immunotherapeutic potential remains rather unexplored, in part due to biotechnological issues. For example, the IgA2m(1) allotype carries an unusual heavy and light chain pairing, which may confer production and stability concerns. Here, we report the generation and the biochemical and functional characterization of a P221R-mutated IgA2m(1) antibody against the epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR). Compared with wild type, the mutated antibody demonstrated heavy chains covalently linked to light chains in monomeric as well as in joining (J)-chain containing dimeric IgA. Functional studies with wild type and mutated IgA2m(1) revealed similar binding to EGFR and direct effector functions such as EGFR down-modulation and growth inhibition. Furthermore, both IgA molecules triggered similar levels of indirect tumor cell killing such as antibody-dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity (ADCC) by isolated monocytes, activated polymorphonuclear cells, and human whole blood. Interestingly, the dimeric IgA antibodies demonstrated higher efficiency in direct as well as in indirect effector mechanisms compared with their respective monomeric forms. Both wild type and mutated antibody triggered effective FcαRI-mediated tumor cell killing by macrophages already at low effector to target cell ratios. Interestingly, also polarized macrophages mediated significant IgA2-mediated ADCC. M2 macrophages, which have been described as promoting tumor growth and progression, may convert to ADCC-mediating effector cells in the presence of EGFR-directed antibodies. In conclusion, these results provide further insight into the immunotherapeutic potential of recombinant IgA antibodies for tumor immunotherapy and suggest macrophages as an additional effector cell population.

Human Gm, Km, and Am allotypes and their molecular characterization: a remarkable demonstration of polymorphism.

Human immunoglobulin allotypes are antigenic determinants (or "markers") determined serologically, classically by hemagglutination inhibition, on the human immunoglobulin (IG) heavy and light chains. The allotypes have been identified on the gamma1, gamma2, gamma3, and alpha2 heavy chains (they are designated as G1m, G2m, G3m, and A2m allotypes, respectively), and on the kappa light chain (Km allotypes). Gm-Am allotypes are inherited in fixed combinations, or Gm-Am haplotypes, owing to the linkage of the human IGHC genes (IGHG3, IGHG1, IGHA1, IGHG2, IGHG4, IGHE, and IGHA2 from 5' to 3' in the IGH locus on chromosome 14). Gm and Am allotypes have been one of the most powerful tools in population genetics and very instrumental in molecular characterization of the human IGHC genes (gene conversion, copy number variation, gene order). They represent a major system for understanding immunogenicity of the polymorphic IG chains, in relation with amino acid and conformational changes. The correlation between G3m allotypes and amino acid changes has been possible with the sequencing of many alleles of the IGHG3 gene, from individuals from different populations and with known allotypes. In this chapter, we integrate genetics and sequence data and provide an updated overview of the Gm-Am haplotypes and Km allotypes. We propose, for the first time, a complete elucidation of the G3m allotypes, illustrated by the "IMGT G3m allele butterfly" concept that allows a graphical representation of the G3m alleles (variants of a gene expressing a given set of allotypes). Knowledge of allotypes is important in antibody engineering and humanization of monoclonal antibodies to improve immunotherapy.

Transcriptional analysis of equine λ-light chains in the horse breeds Rhenish-German Coldblood and Hanoverian Warmblood.

The present study analyzed equine λ-light chain genes (IGLV and IGLC) transcribed in the horse breeds Rhenish-German Coldblood (RGC) and Hanoverian Warmblood (HW). Primers were generated for the major expressed IGLV subgroup 8. The significant majority of the sequences represented IGLC6/7. In RGC, IGLC1 and IGLC5 were observed in significant higher frequencies than IGLC4. In HW, significant differences were obtained for the transcription of IGLC1 and IGLC5. IGLC4 was not determined in this breed. Five allotypic IGLC1 variants, four allotypic IGLC5 variants, and three allelic as well as two allotypic IGLC6/7 variants were identified. IGLC1(b, d), IGLC5(c, d), and IGLC6/7(a3, b) were detected in RGC while IGLC1(c) and IGLC5(b) were solely found in HW. Furthermore, 11 out of 144 known IGLV-segments were transcribed of which IGLV15 and IGLV17 were preferred significantly. IGLV25 displayed significant differences in the rearrangement between both breeds. The classified pseudogenes IGLV101ψ and IGLV74ψ were also identified. Rearrangements with IGLC-genes showed significant differences for IGLV15 in both breeds, whereas IGLV25 also revealed significant differences between the breeds. The transcriptional orientation of the functional segments has no influence on the occurrence of the IGLV.

Detection of new allotypic variants of bovine λ-light chain constant regions in different cattle breeds.

In the cattle breeds German Black Pied (GBP), German Simmental (GS), Holstein Friesian (HF), Aubrac (A) three transcribed allotypic variants in isotype IGLC2 and five allotypic variants in isotype IGLC3 were identified. Substitutions within the putative interface to CH1 at position 11 and 79 were noted. In IGLC2(b), K79E led to a charge conversion. In IGLC3(b) and IGLC3(c), the E79N replacement removed the charge while the T11K substitution resulted in a positively charged amino acid residue. In addition, D15 and T16 were found in IGLC2(c), IGLC3(b), and IGLC3(c). Substitutions located on the outer site of the molecule were observed in IGLC2(b) (V40, H45.5), IGLC2(c) (A1, V40, D77), IGLC3(b) (A1, D77, D109, P127), IGLC3(c) (A1, G45.5, D77, D109, P127), IGLC3(d) (D109), and IGLC3(e) (A1). Amino acid residues P83 (IGLC2(c), IGLC3(b), IGLC3(c)), N93 (IGLC2(b)), D93 (IGLC3(b)), and G93 (IGLC3(c)) were positioned in cavities but seemed to be accessible for solvents.

Recurrence of monoclonal gammopathy associated with donor-derived myelodysplastic syndrome after cord blood stem cell transplantation.

Myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS) is known to be associated with functional abnormalities of B cells, including hypergammaglobulinemia and monoclonal gammopathy (MG). However, the pathogenesis of these immunological disorders has not been clarified. We report a patient who developed donor-derived MDS followed by leukemic transformation after cord blood transplantation for MDS with MG. Interestingly, MG reappeared before development of donor-derived MDS. We analyzed the immunoglobulin allotype gene polymorphisms to determine whether the MG after cord blood transplantation was of recipient origin or donor origin. Results of genetic analysis and enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay of IgG1 allotype revealed that the MG after cord blood transplantation was of donor origin. Although the mechanism of donor-derived MG remains unclear, the persistent presence of recipient's antigen presenting cells might have induced the abnormal immunoglobulin production.

Rapid LC-MS screening for IgG Fc modifications and allelic variants in blood.

A new method for simultaneously screening allelic variants and certain Fc modifications on endogenous human IgG1 and IgG2 directly from blood samples is described. The IdeS endoproteinase was used to cleave IgG in serum to generate Fc, which, after denaturation, was analyzed directly as monomeric Fc (Fc/2) by LC-MS to identify the haplotype(s) present in each individual. The relative levels of IgG isotype and haplotype ratios were generated along with the profile of the major Fc glycans and several other modifications associated with each IgG1 or IgG2 haplotype. Since only minute quantities (5 µL) of blood are required and analysis can be highly automated, this approach lends itself to screening large populations. We demonstrate its utility in examining possible correlations between Fc properties and allelic variants. IgG1 core fucosylation, which significantly impacts antibody dependent cellular cytotoxicity (ADCC), showed an asymmetric distribution, with a small number of individuals showing unexpectedly high core afucosylation levels. In these individuals, IgG2 afucosylation levels were normal. Finally, a new IgG1 allotype, previously not characterized, was identified using this analytical methodology.

Interaction between immunoglobulin allotypes and NK receptor genes in diabetes post-hepatitis C virus infection.

Genetic interactions between natural killer (NK) cells immunoglobulin-like receptor (KIR) genes and immunoglobulin allotypes have been previously reported in type 2 diabetes mellitus (DM) patients. Puerto Rican Americans with a history of intravenous drug use who developed DM following HCV infection (n=32) were compared to individuals infected with HCV without diabetes (n=121) and to DM non-infected individuals (n=95). Subjects were genotyped for KIRs and immunoglobulin allotypes. We found interactions of immunoglobulin allotypes KM3/KM3 with NK inhibitory receptors 2DL3/2DL3, 2DL1 in the absence of 2DS4 associated with susceptibility to DM in HCV infected individuals. These data suggest the possibility that a subset of patients with HCV could have an immune-mediated component contributing to the development of DM.

IgG1 heavy chain-coding gene polymorphism (G1m allotypes) and development of antibodies-to-infliximab.

OBJECTIVE: The chimeric anti-tumor necrosis factor-alpha antibody infliximab is known to induce antibodies-to-infliximab (ATI) in some treated patients. Immunogenicity in murine variable domains is expected; however, constant domains of its human heavy gamma1 chain may also be implicated as it expresses G1m1 and G1m17 allotypes. This allelic form may be immunogenic in patients that are homozygous for the G1m3 allotype commonly expressed in Caucasoid populations. METHODS: As G1m allotypic divergence may explain the presence of ATI or may influence their concentration, a genotyping method was developed and validated to determine antithetical (i.e. mutually exclusive) G1m3 and G1m17 allotypes (amino acid 120 of CH1 according to the international ImMunoGeneTics information system unique numbering) at the IGHG1 gene level (CH1 359g/a nucleotide polymorphism). Two hundred forty-five blood donors and 118 previously described patients suffering from Crohn's disease, treated with infliximab, and having developed ATI in 73 of them, were genotyped. RESULTS: The IGHG1 CH1 359g/a polymorphism does not depart from the Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium in the control population, and allele frequencies were similar in controls and patients. No association was found between the patient G1m allotypes and the presence of ATI or their concentration. It remains possible that anti-Gm1 antibodies are not well detected by the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays used for ATI detection and/or that the G1m allotypes are minor antigens on IgG1. CONCLUSION: The IGHG1 polymorphism does not seem to play a major role in the induction of ATI. Further analyses will be required to determine whether it is also the case for humanized or fully human antibodies bearing the same G1m allotypes.